International Journal of Nursing Studies
Volume 39, Issue 2 , Pages 229-242 , February 2002

Trends in lifestyle cardiovascular risk factors in women: analysis from the Canadian National Population Health Survey

Received 27 July 2000 ,Revised 11 December 2000 ,Accepted 18 February 2001.

References 

  1. Anda RF, Walker NM, Wooten KG, Mast EE, Escobedo LG, Sanderson LM. Behavioral risk factor surveillance, 1988. MMWR: Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 1990;39(SS-2):1–3
  2. Ashley FW, Kannel WB. Relation of weight change to change in atherogenic traits (the Framingham study). Journal of Chronic Diseases. 1974;27:103–114
  3. Ashton W, Nanchahal K, Wood D. Leisure-time physical activity and coronary risk factors in women. Journal of Cardiovascular Risk. 2000;7(4):259–266
  4. Baron JA, Adams P, Ward M. Cigarette smoking and other correlates of cytologic oestrogen effect in postmenopausal women. Fertility and Sterility. 1988;50:766–771
  5. Barrette-Connor E, Bush TL. Estrogen and coronary heart disease in women. JAMA. 1991;265:1861–1867
  6. Barrett-Connor EL. Heart disease in women. Fertility and Sterility. 1994;62(Suppl. 2):127S–132S
  7. Barrett-Connor EL, Cohen BA, Wingard DL, Edelstein DL. Why is diabetes mellitus a stronger risk factor for fatal ischemic heart disease in women than in men? The Rancho Bernado Study. JAMA. 1991;265:627–631
  8. Baxter T, Milner P, Wilson K, Leaf M, Nicholl J, Freeman J, et al. A cost effective, community based heart health promotion project in England (prospective comparative study). British Medical Journal. 1997;315(7108):582–585
  9. Bijnen FC, Feskens EJ, Caspersen CJ, Giampaoli S, Nissinen AM, Menotti A, et al. Physical activity and cardiovascular risk factors among elderly men in Finland, Italy, and the Netherlands. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1996;143(6):553–561
  10. Bjorntop P. The association between obesity, adipose tissue distribution, and disease. Acta Medica Scandinavica. 1988;723:121–134
  11. Blair SN, Kohl HWIII, Paffenbarger RS, Barlow CE. Physical fitness and all cause mortality (a prospective study of health of men and women). JAMA. 1989;262:2395–2401
  12. Brownson RC, Smith CA, Pratt M, Mack ME, Jackson-Thompson J, Dean CG, et al. Preventing cardiovascular disease through commounity-based risk reduction (the bootheel heart health project). American Journal of Public Health. 1996;86:206–213
  13. Carleton RA, Lasater TM, Assaf AR, Felfman HA, McKinlay S. The Pawtucket Heart Health Program (community changes in cardiovascular risk factors and projected disease risk). American Journal of Public Health. 1995;85:777–785
  14. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1998. Missed opportunities in preventive counseling for cardiovascular disease — United States, 1995. MMWR: Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 47(3), 91–95.
  15. Chesebro JH, Fuster V, Elveback LR, Frye RL. Strong family history and cigarette smoking as risk factors of coronary artery disease in young adults. Britsh Heart Journal. 1982;47:78–83
  16. Choiniere R, Lafontaine P, Edwards AC. Distribution of cardiovascular disease risk factors by socio-economic status among Canadian adults. Canadian Medical Association Journal. 2000;162(9 Suppl.):S13–S24
  17. Dahlof B, Lindholm L, Hansson L, Schersten B, Ekbom T, Wester PO. Morbidity and mortality in the Swedish Trial in old patients with hypertension. (STOP-Hypertension.). Lancet. 1991;338:1281–1285
  18. Donahue RP, Abbott RD, Reed DM, Yano K. Postchallenge glucose concentrations and coronary heart disease in men of Japanese ancestry (the Honolulu Heart Program). Diabetes. 1987;36:689–692
  19. Dunn AL, Marcus BH, Kampert JB, Garcia ME, Kohl III HW, Blair SN. Reduction in cardiovascular disease risk factors (6-month results from Project Active). Preventive Medicine. 1997;26(6):883–892
  20. Eaker ED. Psychological factors in the epidemiology of coronary heart disease in women. Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 1989;12:167–174
  21. Escobedo LG, Giles WH, Anda RF. Socioeconomic status, race and death from coronary heart disease. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 1997;13:123–128
  22. Fiebach NH, Herbert PR, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC, Rosner B, et al. A prospective study of high blood pressure and cardiovascular disease in women. American Journal Epidemiology. 1989;130:646–654
  23. Ford ES, Cooper RS. Risk factors for hypertension in a national cohort study. Hypertension. 1991;18:598–606
  24. Fortmann SP, Winkkleby MA, Flora JA, Haskell WL, Taylor CB. Effect of long-term community health education on blood pressure and hypertension control (the Stanford Five-City Project). American Journal of Epidemiology. 1990;132:629–646
  25. Frost, P.H., Davis, B.R., Burlando, A.J., Curb, J.D., Guthrie, G.P., Isaacsohn, J.L., Wassertheil-Smoller, S., Wilson, A.C., Stamler, J., for the Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly Research Group. 1996. Coronary heart disease risk factors in men and women aged 60 years and older: findings from the Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly Program (SHEP). Circulation 94, 26–34.
  26. Fuller, J.H., Shipley, M.J., Rose, G., Jarrett, R.J., Keen, H., 1980. Coronary-heart-disease risk and impaired glucose tolerance. Lancet 1 (8183), 1373–137.
  27. Giardina KG. Call to action (cardiovascular disease in women). Journal of Women's Health. 1998;7(1):37–43
  28. Gurwitz JH, Nananda F, Avorn J. The exclusion of the elderly and women from clinical trial in acute myocardial infarction. JAMA. 1992;268:1417–1422
  29. Hazuda H, Haffner S, Stern M, Knapp J, Eifler C, Rosenthal M. Employment status and women's protection against coronary heart disease. Findings from the San Antonio heart study. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1986;123:623–640
  30. Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada, 1995. Heart Disease and Stroke in Canada, 1995. Ottawa.
  31. Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada, 2000a. The changing face of heart disease and stroke in Canada, Ottawa. Available from : URL: Http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hpb/lcdc/bcrdd/hdsc2000/index.html.
  32. Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada, 2000b. Heart and Stroke Foundation survey of Canadian women 45–75, 1999, Ottawa. Available from: URL: Http://www.hc- sc.gc.ca/En/p-newsletter/Release02.html.
  33. Horton, J.A. (Ed.), 1992. The Women's Health Data Book. A Profile of Women's Health in the United States. The Jacobs Institute of Women's Health, New York, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
  34. Hu F, Stampfer M, Manson JA, Grodstein F, Colditz G, Speizer F, et al. Trends in the incidence of coronary heart disease and changes in diet and lifestyle in women. New England Journal of Medicine. 2000;343:530–537
  35. Hypertension and detection Follow-Up Program (HDFP) Co-operative Group, 1979. Five-year findings of the hypertension detection and follow-up program. mortality by race, sex and age. JAMA 242, 2572–2577.
  36. Johansen H, Nargundkar M, Nair C, Neutel I, Wielgosz A. Women and cardiovascular disease. Chronic Disease in Canada. 1990;11(3):41–47
  37. Judelson DR. Coronary heart disease in women. Risk factors and prevention. JAMWA. 1994;49(6):186–197
  38. Kannel WB. Silent myocardial ischemia and infarction (insights from the Framingham study). Cardiology Clinics. 1986;4(4):583–591
  39. Kannel WB. Blood pressure as a cardiovascular risk factor (prevention and treatment). JAMA. 1996;275:1571–1576
  40. Keys A, Menotti A, Aravanis C, Blackburn H, Djordevic BS, Buzina R, et al  The seven countries study (2289 deaths in 15 years). Preventive Medicine. 1984;13:141–154
  41. Khan KT. Where are the women in studies of coronary heart disease?. British Medical Journal. 1993;306:1145–1146
  42. Kushi LH, Fee RM, Folsom AR, Mink PJ, Anderson KE, Sellers TA. Physical activity and mortality in post-menpausal women. JAMA. 1997;277:1287–1292
  43. Lapidus L, Bengtsson C. Socioeconomic factors and physical activity in relation to cardiovascular disease and death. A 12 year follow up of participants in a population study of women in Gothenburg, Sweden. British Heart Journal. 1986;55:295–310
  44. LCDC, Health Canada, 1999. Number of cardiovascular disease deaths by sex, actual and projected Canada, 1950–2016. Cited in Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada, 2000a. The changing face of heart disease and stroke in Canada, Ottawa. Available from: URL: Http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hpb/lcdc/bcrdd/hdsc2000/index.html.
  45. Lemaitre RN, Heckbert SR, Psaty BM, Siscivick DS. Leisure-time physical activity and the risk of nonfatal myocardial infarction in postmenopausal women. Archives of Internal Medicine. 1995;15:2302–2308
  46. Levy D, Garrison RJ, Savage DD, Kannel WB, Castelli WP. Prognostic implications of echocardiographically determined left ventricular mass in the Framingham Heart Study. New England Journal of Medicine. 1990;322:1561–1566
  47. Lile JL. A nursing challenge for the 90s (reducing risk factors for coronary heart disease in women). Health Values. 1990;14(4):17–21
  48. Luepker RV, Rosamond WD, Murphy R, Sprafka JM, Folsom AR, McGovern PG, et al. Socioeconomic status and coronary heart disease risk factor trends (the Minnesota heart survey). Circulation. 1993;88:2171–2179
  49. Lynch JW, Kaplan GA, Cohen RD. Do cardiovascular risk factors explain the relation between socioeconomic status, risk of all-cause mortality, cardiovascular mortality, and acute myocardial infarction?. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1996;144:934–942
  50. Manson JE, Colditz GA, Stampler MJ, Willett WC, Rosner B, Monson RR, et al. A prospective study of obesity and risk of coronary heart disease in women. New England Journal of Medicine. 1990;322:882–889
  51. Margetts BM, Rogers E, Widhal K, Remaut de Winter AM, Zunfit HJ. Relationship between attitudes to health, body weight and physical activity and level of physical activity in a nationally representative sample in the European Union. Public Health and Nutrition. 1999;2(1A):97–103
  52. Martinez J, Kearney J, Kafatos A, Paquet S, Martinez-Gonzalez M. Variables independently associated with self-reported obesity in the European Union. Public Health and Nutrition. 1999;2(1A):125–133
  53. Medical Research Council Working Party, 1985. MRC trial of treatment of mild hypertension. Principal results. British Medical Journal 291, 97–104.
  54. Michnocicz JJ, Herschcopf RJ, Naganuma H, Bradlow HL, Fishman J. Increased 2-hydroxylation of oestradiol as a possible mechanism for antioestrogenic effect of cigarette smoking. New England Journal of Medicine. 1986;315:1305–1309
  55. Nordt TK, Sawa H, Jujii S, Sobel BE. Induction of plasminogen activator inhibitor type-1 (PAI-1) by proinsulin and insulin in vivo. Circulation. 1995;91:764–770
  56. Novak JC. The social mandate and historical basis for nursing's role in health promotion. Journal of Professional Nursing. 1988;4(2):80–87
  57. Oparil S. Pathophysiology of sudden coronary death in women (implications for prevention). Circulation. 1998;97:2103–2105
  58. Pearson TA. Cardiovascular disease in developing countries (myths, realities, and opportunities). Cardiovascular Drugs and Therapy. 1999;13(2):95–104
  59. Pilote L, Hlatky MA. Attitudes of women toward hormone therapy and prevention of heart disease. American Heart Journal. 1995;129:1237–1243
  60. Poduri A, Grisso JA. Cardiovascular risk factors in economically disadvantaged women (a study of prevalence and awareness). Journal of National Medical Association. 1998;90(9):531–536
  61. Polit DF. Data Analysis and Statistics for Nursing Research. Stamford, CT: Appleton and Lange; 1996;
  62. Pols MA, Peeters P, Twisk J, Kemper H, Grobbee D. Physical activity and cardiovascular disease risk profile in women. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1997;146:322–328
  63. Powell KE, Thompson PD, Caspersen CJ, Kendrick JS. Physical activity and the incidence of coronary heart disease. Annual Review of Public Health. 1987;8:253–287
  64. Prescott E, Hippe M, Schnohr P, Hein HO, Vestibo J. Smoking and the risk of myocardial infarction in women and men (longitudinal population study). British Medical Journal. 1998;316:1043–1047
  65. Puska P, Salonen JK, Nissinen A, Tuomilehto J, Vartiainen E, Korhonen H, et al. Change in risk factors for coronary heart disease during 10 years of a community intervention programme (North Karelia Project). British Medical Journal. 1983;287:1840–1848
  66. Reeder, B.A., Angel, A., Ledoux, M., Rabin, S.W., Young, T.K., Sweet, L.E., Canadian Heart Health Surveys Research Group, 1992. Obesity and its relation to cardiovascular risk factors in Canadian adults. Canadian Medical Association Journal 146 (11), 2009–2019.
  67. Roberts RJ. Can self-reported data accurately describe the prevalence of overweight?. Public Health. 1995;109(4):275–284
  68. Rosengren A, Eriksson H, Larsson B, Svardsudd K, Tibblin G, Welin L, et al. Secular changes in cardiovascular risk factors over 30 years in Swedish men aged 50 (the study of men born in 1913, 1923, 1933, and 1943). Journal of Internal Medicine. 2000;247(1):111–118
  69. Scharff D, Homan S, Freuter M, Brennan L. Factors associated with physical activity in women across the life span (implications for program development). Women and Health. 1999;29(2):115–134
  70. Sedgwick AW, Thomas DW, Davies M. Relationships between changes in aerobic fitness and changes in blood pressure and plasma lipids in men and women (the ‘Adelaide 1000’ 4-year follow up). Journal of Clinical Epidemiology. 1993;46(2):141–151
  71. Shea S, Stein AD, Basch CE, Lantigua R, Maylahn C, Strogatz DS, et al. Independent association of educational attainment and ethnicity with behavioral risk factors for cardiovascular disease. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1991;134:567–582
  72. SHEP Cooperative Research Group Prevention of stroke by antihypertensive drug treatment in older persons with isolated systolic hypertension, 1991. Final results of the Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly Program (SHEP). JAMA 265, 3235–3264.
  73. Statistics Canada, 1998. National Population Health Survey, 1996/97, Ottawa. Catalogue No. 82-567.
  74. Stender M, Hense HW, Doring A, Keil U. Physical activity at work and cardiovascular disease risk (results from MONICA Augsberg Study). Internal Journal of Epidemiology. 1993;22(4):644–650
  75. Taylor, H., Bass, H., Hoeffler, L., 1993. The health of American women. Report on a poll conducted for the Commonwealth Fund, Louis Harris & Associates, NY.
  76. Tobin JN, Wassertheil-Smoller S, Wexter JP, Steingart RM, Budner N, Lense L, et al. Sex bias in considering coronary bypass surgery. Annals of Internal Medicine. 1987;107:19–22
  77. Tudor-Smith C, Nutbeam D, Moore L, Catford J. Effects of the Heartbeat Wales programme over five years on behavioural risks for cardiovascular disease (quasi-experimental comparison of results from Wales and a matched reference area). British Medical Journal. 1998;316(7134):818–822
  78. Vaz de A, Graca P, Afonso C, D’Amicis A, Lappalainen R, Damkjaer S. Physical activity levels and body weight in a nationally representative sample in the European Union. Public Health and Nutrition. 1999;2(1A):105–113
  79. Walden CE, Knopp RH, Wahl P, Beach KW, Strandness E. Sex difference in the effect of diabetes mellitus on lipoprotein triglycerides and cholesterol concentrations. New England Journal of Medicine. 1984;311:953–959
  80. Walters V. Women's views of their main health problems. Canadian Journal of Public Health. 1992;83:371–374
  81. Weir, M.R., 1991. Impact of age, race, and obesity on hypertensive mechanisms and therapy. American Journal of Medicine 90 (Suppl. 5A), 5A-3S–5A-14S.
  82. WHO, 1998. 1996 World Health Statistics Annual. World Health Organization, Geneva.
  83. Wilcox S, Castro C, King AC, Houseman R, Brownson RC. Determination of leisure-time physical activity in rural compared with urban older and ethnically diverse women in the United States. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 2000;54(9):667–672
  84. Willett WC, Green A, Stampler MJ. Relative and absolute excess risks of coronary heart disease among women who smoke cigarettes. New England Journal of Medicine. 1987;317:1303–1308
  85. Willett WC, Manson JE, Stampler MJ, Colditz GA, Rosner B, Speizer FE, et al. Weight, weight change, and coronary heart disease in women (risk within the normal weight range). JAMA. 1995;273:461–465
  86. Winkleby MA, Cubbib C, Ahn DK, Kraemar HC. Pathways by which SES and ethnicity influence cardiovascular disease risk factors. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1999;896:1919–2009
  87. Winkleby MA, Fortmann SP, Barrett DC. Social class disparities in risk factors for disease (eight-year prevalence patterns by level of education). Preventive Medicine. 1990;19:1–12
  88. Wolf PA, Cobb JL, D’Agostino RB. Epidemiology of stroke. In:  Barnett HJM,  Mohr JP,  Stern BM editor. Stroke: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Management. 2nd Edition.. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 1992;p. 3–27

PII: S0020-7489(01)00013-X

International Journal of Nursing Studies
Volume 39, Issue 2 , Pages 229-242 , February 2002